comparison FDR and Wilson essays

comparison FDR and Wilson essays Although the United States is only three hundred and some years old, it has seen numerous wars and problems, be it world or domestic. At this time it is important to have a president who can solve those problems. I believe that two of best United States presidents were Franklin Delano Roosevelt or FDR, and Woodrow Wilson. Although both of them were great presidents and they had many characteristics in common they also had numerous differences. FDR was born in New York on January 30, 1882. He graduated from Harvard University in 1904. While Woodrow Wilson was born in 1856, and he graduated from College of New Jersey. FDR was United States 32nd President, while Wilson was 28th. FDR made an amazing impact on United States during the Great Depression, at this time some 13 to 15 million Americans were unemployed. While FDR had a major problem on his hands, Wilson was lucky not to have as many domestic problems. And few that he did have, he successfully solved by passing couple of laws. In the world situation FDR was involved in WW2. He tried to keep United States out of the war as long as he could, but finally after bombing of Pearl Harbor he decided that we had no choice but to enter the war. On the other hand Wilson had his work cut out by WW1. He also tried to keep United States out of the way of the war as much as possible, but after the Zimmermann note was intercepted and translated by the British, in which the Germany asked Mexico to attack United States, Wilson had no choice but to enter the WW1. The legislation field was FDRs specialty. During his time in office he passed numerous laws, that changed the United States, from New Deal that helped America get out of the Great Depression, to Manhattan Project that allowed scientists to use federal fund towards building of an atomic bomb. Finally FDR passed the Social Security Act that gave tax money to support people by unemployment compensation, tax money ...

Well, we know its big - Emphasis

Well, we know its big Well, we know its big David Cameron has referred to it as his mission and his passion, but it does seem that very few people are entirely sure what the Big Society is actually all about. This isnt too surprising when even those well and truly behind the idea are not helping matters. Phillip Blond, director of the think tank ResPublica, and according to the Telegraph a driving force behind David Camerons Big Society agenda, has argued the case for the policy in the Independent. He guides the people thus: Public sector mutualisation and budgetary takeover by citizens of the state is a crucial initial phase in endowing ordinary citizens with the power to ensure that the services they run are operated in a way that combines public interest with economic efficiency and localised employee ownership building in all the gains that this model delivers. Writing this convoluted and opaque will do very little to clarify the concept for the ordinary citizens it claims to want to empower. In relation to this, one letter to the Independent quoted Nobel prize-winner Peter Medawar: People who write obscurely are either unskilled in writing or up to mischief. The writer then commented: I dont think Mr Blond is unskilled in writing. If Cameron and co. are to defend the Big Society as more than (as some rumours have it) a slightly sinister cover for the cuts, they need to put away the thesaurus and use considerably fewer big words.

Wet Lab. Cellular Replacement Therapy And Stem Cell Research Essay

Wet Lab. Cellular Replacement Therapy And Stem Cell Research - Essay Example When embryonic mouse stem cells were isolated more than 25 years ago, the significance of the discovery was soon realized. (Keller, 2005) there are many researchers and hold out hope for cellular replacement therapy arising from stem cell research. Specifically, embryonic stem cells, also known as ES - pluripotent cells are of great concern. They exhibit the potential to differentiate into a variety of final tissue types when they reach their ultimate, fully matured state. Embryonic stem cell lines are usually derived from a blastocyst, or in some cases an earlier stage of embryonic development. The 150 cells which at most comprise the blastocyst are able to differentiate into all types of body tissues. (Stem Cell Information, 2009) Most immediately, a pluripotent stem cell will give rise to the primary germ layers: ectoderm, mesoderm, and endoderm. From these layers, other cells and tissues differentiate but ultimately give rise to all internal organs of the future organism. (Schole r, 2007) Other types of stem cells, further in development also have uses in research and therapy; multipotent stem cells have some flexibility, but usually only within a closely related family of cells, such as cardiac tissue, blood cells. Furthermore, the cells can become Unipotent cells - which are not themselves per se, because they can only produce new cells of the exact same type. On the other end of the spectrum, are totipotent stem cells, these are fertilized zygotes which have the potential to grow into an entire individual, an embryonic stem cell from a blastocyst does not qualify.(Scholer, 2007) Cells can also be classified in terms of progenitor or precursor. Precursors exhibit recognizable traits of the function type they will become, while Progenitors are not outwardly committed to a cell type. (Rabbany et al. 2003) An extensive variety of proteins are responsible for differentiation of which much more research is needed. We are only now discovering the functions of re gulatory operators such as Shp2, or transforming growth factor-?, that aids in the expression of chorionic gonadotropin.(Burnham Institute, 2009), (Keller, 2005) A well-studied pathway is the process of hematopoiesis, by which stem cells give rise to various types of blood cells. (Mackey, 2001) There are essentially two branches to the hematopoietic differentiation process: the lineage beginning with a myeloid progenitor, and the lineage stemming from the common lymphoid progenitor. (Parslow et al. 1997) The lymphoid progenitor arises from the multi-potential Hemocytoblast. The lymphoid progenitor differentiates into what are described as T cells. Differentiation is possible into the natural killer cells, CD4 and CD8 types, known as large granular lymphocytes, from which no further cell lines arise. But the lymphoid progenitor can also become the small lymphocyte. This stem cell has the potential to become a T-lymphocyte helper cell, or a B lymphocyte, which can further differentiat e into plasma cells from which antibodies are produced. (Leishman et al. 2001), (Obeyesekere et al. 2004) But the hemocytoblast from which these types arise produces more cell types along the myeloid lineage. The myeloid progenitor can differentiate into four other cell lines; erythrocytes – otherwise known as oxygen-carrying red blood cells. Immature erythrocytes can be identified by the presence of a nucleus, since they are similar in size and shape to mature erythrocytes – but a nucleus is ejected from the cell upon reaching full differentiation. (Ownby, 2002) Another differentiation event results in mast cells, whose release of histamine and heparin is responsible for many allergic reactions including anaphylaxis. Myeloid progenitors can also

Answers QUESTION Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Answers QUESTION - Research Paper Example In making decision, bounded rationality was involved since vehicles are available from many locations, varied models and varied prices; however, time and funds are limited thus bounded rationality assisted in making a decision to buy a vehicle. Bounded rationality is the idea in decision-making, where rationality of persons is not directly comparable to their knowledge. The intelligence limitations and limited time affect their decision making (Gigerenzer 13). The final decision is to purchase Midsize Station Wagons; Toyota Prius v with 4 cyl, 1.8 L, Automatic (CVT), HEV, Regular (U.S Department of Energy 1-2). This is because it is affordable and among 2014 Most Fuel Efficient Cars. The decision is satisficing after making necessary research and choosing appropriate alternative regarding the new vehicle to purchase. Satisficing is a decision-making plan that aims for a suitable or sufficient consequence, rather than the most favorable solution (Weber 41). This is so since aiming for the most favorable solution may demand needless use of time, power and resources. Files might be stored in Noncontiguous locations when the disk is new and has not been defragmented. A file kept on disk can get fragmented that means that it is kept on non-contiguous segments. Noncontiguous data access is a contact that functions on data that is not categorized inside memory, file, or both (Savage 85). One instance of contiguous information in memory and noncontiguous data in file is a submission that keeps a 2D assortment in a file, and then afterward needs to interpret the one portion from every piece into a contiguous memory safeguard. In order to maximize access when the file information is contiguous, a reminiscence function can buffer the access in order that data access is implemented in memory and just one file write/read demand is essential(Savage 85).. Contiguous:

Sufism is the heart of Islam Essay Example for Free

Sufism is the heart of Islam Essay Sufism which is seen as the heart of Islam is a concept which is highly regarded in the Islam religion because of the role it plays in the religion. Studies show that Sufis are men who practice the highest morality and are not led by worldly or their own selfish desires 1. It can be argued that, Sufism is the heart of Islam and it cannot be separated from the Islam religion. This paper is written to critically analyze the fact that Sufism is the heart of Islam. This study found out that there are varied studies which exist touching on the concept of Sufism. Understanding the concepts of Sufism is a core ingredient to understanding the concept of Islam religion. For example, Sufism is all about personal and spiritual growth of Sufis. Studies show that, religion to the men of Sufis is important as long as it does not stand in the way of spiritual growth and progress 1. In other words, religion is there to be analyzed and reasoned so that a follower can derive meaning from the teachings of the religion. Other studies show that, Sufism emphasizes more on love for all human beings and that means that no one should hurt the feelings of other people. When Sufis learn to love each other and treat them equally then they eventually achieve higher levels of morality which is measured by ones behavior and decision making process. God in religion is seen as a God of love and to be actualization with His teaching there is need to practice love actions. The concept of Sufism started with the early leaders of Islam like the Shia Imaams and their followers who used to follow highly spiritually life’s1. Sufism was the commemoration of a kind of divine wisdom from the Prophet Mohammed (Peace be upon Him) and Imams. Early leaders who started the principles of Sufism wanted to achieve higher levels of morality through the use of supplications, teachings and writings. At the time those who led spiritual life did so with so much piety. Sufism is a principle which is made through finding meaning of religion through unveiling the truth through intellectual reasoning. This study found out that the development of piety started among spirituality amongst early Muslims because of tyranny of Islam leaders who purportedly seized the helm of empire after the death of Iman Ali in 40 Hijra 1. This study also found out that critics have a hard time conceptualizing Sufi as an integral part of Islam since they don’t see its evolution from consciousness from the Quaran of Prophet Mohammed (Peace be upon him) teachings 1. From an analysis of how Sufism started its apparent that Muslims who wanted higher levels of morality adopted the concept for their own spiritual benefits and actualizations. Other studies show that Sufism is as a result of mysticism of Jews and Christians at earlier times hence their refusal to adopt Sufism as a major component of Islam1. However studies, critics of Sufism have no bases since Sufism is based on mysticism of the Islam religion. In other words, Sufism is a core ingredient of Islamic faith and one has to work hard to acquire higher levels of Sufism. Sufism is based in finding direction in the Islam faith which also preaches finding order in the human society and within the human soul 1. God finds His relationship with men through religion and love which makes it possible for man to be able to come together to God and eventually return to him at the end in paradise. Quran states that, â€Å"Lo! We are Allahs and Lo! To Him we return. † 1 The principles of Islam describe how a man is supposed to behave in order to be able to have unity with Allah. Such is the part of gnosis which offers direction to the life of an Islam also known as the spiritual journey of Islam. To be able to comprehend and follow the steps of Islamic principles, Muslims have to use qualified teachers in Islam to give them the necessary direction in their faith. The Islam religion believes that Allah is the only supreme being who should be acknowledged and acknowledging any other being beside him is wrong 1. Consequently, in being in unity with Allah, there is need for Muslims to be able to ape or follow His example and the ways He has set for humanity. That can only be followed if one has a purified heart and at the same time is willing to work hard to achieve higher levels of morality 1. With that in mind, it is important to note that following and being in adherence with the principles of Islam calls for discipline and self sacrifice. In order to appease Allah, there is need for Muslims to praise and pray to Him both in the morning and the evening, sell their merchandise to help the poor to mention a few2. At the end of it all faithful Muslims will be paid by God according to what they did since they have been able to find their self. A Muslim will only be able to achieve higher levels of morality if they find their ‘self’ in the Islam faith. Prophet Mohammed (Peace be upon him) once said that one who has known his self has already Known Allah2. This is to say that there is significant peace that comes with finding direction in the Islam faith. On the other hand, it is through self discovery that Muslims are able to have peace and contention with themselves if they know that they are following in the way of morality. Other studies show that to be a successful Sufi, one has to follow the journey of self-realization 2. The Islam religion is based on strict discipline and procedures for example praying 5 times in a day. It is only through keeping and following the laid procedures that Muslims are able to live in light. This paper asserts that, Sufism plays an integral role in the life of Muslims since the principle cannot be separated from the life of Islam. There are many misconceptions surrounding the principles of Sufism but it is important to understand that the principle of Sufism is not any different from the concept of Islam. Studies show that Sufism is a major Islamic mysticism revolving around the journey of self, love and God 2. The journey of Sufism emphasizes on ones inner struggles and more especially the conduct of human beings. The Quaran states that one should â€Å"seek among that which God has bestowed upon you the hereafter. But don’t forget the portion of this world either (28:77). 2 With the above in mind, when people become too inclined towards secularization or spiritualism they may miss out on some important principles vital to Islam principles. Studies show that while Islam is submission, Sufism is the principle of Islam in that Muslims have to submit to mystical principles 2.

Comparing the Native Characters in Colonial Literature to the European

When European colonial authors introduced us to the native, they created the native; the native character became more real to European readers than the actual inhabitants of the new world. The natives' overwhelming otherness eclipsed any individuality that might have been found among them. The native was childish, incapable of reason, and savagely unchristian, or as Lord Cromer described him, a being which "generally acts, speaks and thinks in a manner that is exactly opposite to the European" (qtd. in Said 39). The European world was first given Robinson Crusoe's Friday as a native or, more accurately, the native. Friday could easily (and accurately in the European's mind) be substituted for any non-European. Friday, and the native that he represented, continues to exist in post-colonial literature. Part of him, his otherness, is expressed in the new European character. Another part of him, his nativeness, continues to be expressed in the new native. The legacy of the other did not die with colonialism. It continues to be a presence in post-colonial literature, only now the other has white skin. Winterbottom/Clarke/Meers/Pilkings is just one character: the other, the European, the white man. Post-colonial literature's example white man is a reincarnation of Friday; his traits may be slightly different, but he remains the same in that he is overwhelmingly opposite from the important individuals found in the literature. Just as the native and the concept of the native was invented by the Europeans, the European has been invented by the new generation of post-colonial authors. In Arrow of God, Chinua Achebe creates Captain T. K. Winterbottom and Tony Clarke, white officers portrayed as mere unemotional bureaucratic cogs in the co... ...n. The European's once prized light skin has become a sign of illness and he has adopted a stereotypical insensitivity that prevents him from being human. Colonial literature's other, the native, did not end with colonialism. Instead, part of him became the new other, the post-colonial European, while the other part of him remained the native and became the new self. The colonial native is the root of post-colonial characters and, as such, continues to be an integral part of post-colonial literature. Works Cited Achebe, Chinua. Arrow of God. New York: Anchor Books, 1969. Defoe, Daniel. Robinson Crusoe. London: Penguin Books, 1985. Emecheta, Buchi. The Joys of Motherhood. Oxford: Heinemann Educational Publishers, 1994. Said, Edward. Orientalism. New York: Vintage Books, 1979. Soyinka, Wole. Death and the King's Horseman. New York: Norton, 2003. Comparing the Native Characters in Colonial Literature to the European When European colonial authors introduced us to the native, they created the native; the native character became more real to European readers than the actual inhabitants of the new world. The natives' overwhelming otherness eclipsed any individuality that might have been found among them. The native was childish, incapable of reason, and savagely unchristian, or as Lord Cromer described him, a being which "generally acts, speaks and thinks in a manner that is exactly opposite to the European" (qtd. in Said 39). The European world was first given Robinson Crusoe's Friday as a native or, more accurately, the native. Friday could easily (and accurately in the European's mind) be substituted for any non-European. Friday, and the native that he represented, continues to exist in post-colonial literature. Part of him, his otherness, is expressed in the new European character. Another part of him, his nativeness, continues to be expressed in the new native. The legacy of the other did not die with colonialism. It continues to be a presence in post-colonial literature, only now the other has white skin. Winterbottom/Clarke/Meers/Pilkings is just one character: the other, the European, the white man. Post-colonial literature's example white man is a reincarnation of Friday; his traits may be slightly different, but he remains the same in that he is overwhelmingly opposite from the important individuals found in the literature. Just as the native and the concept of the native was invented by the Europeans, the European has been invented by the new generation of post-colonial authors. In Arrow of God, Chinua Achebe creates Captain T. K. Winterbottom and Tony Clarke, white officers portrayed as mere unemotional bureaucratic cogs in the co... ...n. The European's once prized light skin has become a sign of illness and he has adopted a stereotypical insensitivity that prevents him from being human. Colonial literature's other, the native, did not end with colonialism. Instead, part of him became the new other, the post-colonial European, while the other part of him remained the native and became the new self. The colonial native is the root of post-colonial characters and, as such, continues to be an integral part of post-colonial literature. Works Cited Achebe, Chinua. Arrow of God. New York: Anchor Books, 1969. Defoe, Daniel. Robinson Crusoe. London: Penguin Books, 1985. Emecheta, Buchi. The Joys of Motherhood. Oxford: Heinemann Educational Publishers, 1994. Said, Edward. Orientalism. New York: Vintage Books, 1979. Soyinka, Wole. Death and the King's Horseman. New York: Norton, 2003.

Summary by Uma Sekaran

CHAPTER I WHAT IS RESEARCH Research: is simply the process of finding solutions to a problem after a thorough study and analysis of the situational factors. Business research: systematic and organized effort to investigate a specific problem encountered in the work setting, that needs a solution. It comprises a series of steps designed and executed, with the goal of finding answers to the issues that are of concern to the manager in the work environment.Business research: organized, systematic, data-based critical, objective, scientific inquiry or investigation into a specific problem, undertaken with the purpose of finding answers or solutions to it. Yeah, ga usah bingung sama yang namanya mahluk bernama PENELITIAN. Intinya: penelitian itu kan nyelidikin suatu masalah buat nemuin solusinya. Prosesnya ga jauh beda sama usaha kita nyari kebenaran suatu gossip atau cari info tentang orang yang kita gebet. Bedanya: RISET BISNIS ini harus dikerjain secara sistematis, datanya jelas, dan a da dalil-dalil keilmuan yang sudah diakui dan terbukti keabsahannya.Santai†¦ semua orang pasti bisa menaklukan binatang yang bernama PENELITIAN ini; khususnya SKRIPSI (buat mahasiswa S1). Chayo! Pasti bisa! TYPE OF BUSINESS RESEARCH Two different purposes of research: †¢ to solve a current problem faced by the manager in the work setting, demanding a timely solution; (applied research). †¢ to generate a body of knowledge by trying to comprehend how certain problems that occur in organizations can be solved; (basic research). Applied research: research done with the intention of applying the results of the findings to solve specific problems currently being experienced in the organization.Basic/fundamental/pure research: research done chiefly to enhance the understanding of certain problems that commonly occur in organizational settings, and seek methods of solving them. CHAPTER II THE HALLMARKS OF SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH The main distinguishing characteristics of scientif ic research: 1. Purposiveness: started the research with a definite aim or purpose, purposive focus 2. Rigor: carefulness, scrupulousness, the degree of exactitude in research investigations. Good theoretical base and a sound methodological design 3.Testability: researcher develops certain hypotheses, then these can be tested by applying certain statistical tests to the data collected for the purpose 4. Replicability: the results of the tests of hypotheses should be supported again and yet again when the same type of research is repeated in other similar circumtances 5. Precision and confidence: †¢ Precision: the closeness of the findings to â€Å"reality† based on a sample. Reflects the degree of accuracy or axactitude of the results on the basis of the sample – to what really exist in the universe †¢ Confidence: the probability that our estimations are correct 6.Objectivity: the conclusions drawn through the interpretation of the results of data analysis ba sed on the facts of the findings derived from actual data and not on our own subjective or emotional values 7. Generalizability: the scope of applicability of the research findings in one organizational setting to other settings. The research sampling design has to be logically developed and a number of other details in the data-collection methods need to be meticulously followed 8. Parsimony: simplicity in explaining the phenomena or problemsthat occur, and in generating solutions for the problems.Introduced with a good understanding of the problem and the important factors that influences it; good conceptual theoretical model The reason for following a scientific method is that the results will be less prone to errors and more confidence can be placed in the findings because of the greater rigor in application of the design details. This also increases the replicability and generalizability of the findings. Makanya, ikutin deh aturan scientific method. Ibaratnya, meneliti juga ada rukunnya; sama kayak sholat. Kalo kita sholat rukunnya berantakan, ga tertib urutan – ga teratur, kan sholatnya jadi ga karuan tu†¦.Ga jelas juntrungannya. Bisa-bisa ga ada artinya or ga ada nilainya. Prinsip â€Å"harus bertindak sesuai rukun† juga berlaku dalam melakukan penelitian. BUILDING BLOCKS OF SCIENCE IN RESEARCH Deduction: the process by which we arrive at a reasoned conclusion by logical generalization of a known fact. Induction: a process where we observe certain phenomena and on this basis arrive at conclusions. HYPOTHETICO-DEDUCTIVE METHOD 7 steps in the hypothetico-deductive method: 1. Observation 2. Preliminary information gathering 3. Theory formulation 4. Hypothesizing 5.Further scientific data collection 6. Data analysis 7. Deduction CHAPTER IV RESEARCH PROCESS Research process for basic and applied research: 1. Observation: broad area of research interest identified 2. Preliminary data gathering: interviewing, literature survey 3. Problem def inition: research problem delineated 4. Theoretical framework: variables clearly identified and labeled 5. Generation of hypotheses: 6. Scientific research design: 7. Data collection, analysis, and interpretation: 8. Deduction: hypotheses substantiated? Research question answered?Kalau pada tahap ini hipotesis dan pertanyaan permasalahan belum terjawab, maka kita harus kembali ke proses 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, atau pun 7. Yang sabar ya say†¦( Kalau sudah terjawab, ya lanjut ke tahap selanjutnya; 9. Report writing: 10. Report presentation: 11. Managerial decision making: Yeah, tahap pertama pasti observasi dulu. Gue inget banget, waktu pertama-tama dulu gue bilang mau ngangkat Kampung Betawi buat objek penelitian. Aswin bilang â€Å"gini deh! Kamu observasi dulu tu Kampung Betawi selama seminggu penuh berturut-turut. Kalo perlu, lo ga pulang-pulang, diem aja lo disana.Liatin orang-orang yang dateng, ada apa aja disana, ngapain aja, mereka dateng dari mana, pokoknya perhatiin apa aja yan g terjadi di sana! †. Ga berenti sampe disitu! Gue disuruh wawancara si empunya yang berkuasa di Kampung Betawi itu. Tanya tentang Kampung Betawi, secara implisit tanyain juga masalah apa yang dihadapi sama Kampung Betawi, gali sebanyak-banyaknya informasi; untuk memahami objek penelitian lo. Dan yang ga kalah penting: tanyain mereka punya data-data sesuai kebutuhan lo ga; mereka bisa kasih data itu ke lo ga. Ini penting!Kalo mereka ga bisa kasih data sesuai kebutuhan lo, batalkan niat lo buat ngangkat tu objek. Gue saranin (sangat) lo ganti objek aja. Daripada tar lo repot belakangan, mending antisipasi dari awal khan! Oh, iya: ga ketinggalan, gue juga disuruh cari teori dan penelitian terdahulu yang relevan. Untuk memudahkan gue di masa mendatang. Kalo lo udah observasi dan preliminary data gathering, baru deh lo bisa menemukan masalah utama yang akan lo angkat, secara spesifik, apa†¦ permasalahan yang paling menarik, paling kritis, paling menggelitik, paling sensasiona l, yang paling membuat lo bertanya-tanya geregetan and penasaran!Silakan berkhayal†¦ Abis itu, dengan teori-teori yang lo temukan, lo bikin model deh†¦ Despite the fact that the research model is depicted and discussed in this book as if it were a step-by-step linear process, one has to bear in mind that it is not actually so in practice. For example, though the literature search and interviews might have been conducted before formulating the theoretical framework, one may have to go back and conduct more interviews and/or seek additional information from the literature for a clearer understanding, so as to refine the theory. Gue setuju banget sama pernyataan ini!Soalnya gue juga ngerasain harus balik lagi, balik lagi, balik lagi, sampe gue bener-bener ngedapetin apa yang gue mau. Interview, nemu teori, interview, nemu teori, cari ketersediaan data, AARGGHH!!!! Mo gila! Mungkin ini yang dimaksud aswin â€Å"kalo nanti ternyata penemuan kamu ga cocok, ya kita rombak lagiâ € . Sadis! Sialan. Tapi kita tetap harus sabar†¦ SEMANGAAAAATTT!!!!! Gue jadi inget pertanyaan Hermas: â€Å"kapan kita tau kalo penelitian kita udah bener-bener: BENER †. Dan aswin menjawab dengan sok romantis: â€Å"itu semua tergantung kecintaan kalian terhadap ilmu pengetahuan(†.Makanya, bikin penelitian tentang sesuatu yang benar-benar lo sukai, lo cintai. Jadi di tengah-tengah kegilaan dan kebingungan, masih ada alasan waras kenapa lo masih mau ngelanjutin tu penelitian: â€Å"karna gue suka banget! (selain karna alasan harus ngerjain skripsi supaya bisa lulus dari FE)†. Percaya deh, mengerjakan sesuatu yang lo suka bakal bikin HIDUP lebih HIDUP. OBSERVATION 1. Problems currently existing in an organizational setting that need to be solved 2. Areas that a manager believes need to be improved in the organization 3.A conceptual or theoretical issue that needs to be tightened up for the basic researcher to understand certain phenomena 4. Some research questions that a basic researcher wants to answer empirically PRELIMINARY DATA COLLECTION 1. Background information of the organization –that is, the contextual factors †¢ The origin and history of the company –when it came into being, business it is in, rate of growth, ownership and control, and so on †¢ Size in terms of employees, assets, or both †¢ Charter –purposes and ideology †¢ Location –regional, national, or other †¢ Resources –human and others Interdependent relationships with other institutions and the external environment †¢ Financial position during the previous 5 to 10 years, and relevant financial data 2. Managerial philosophy, company policies, and other structural aspects †¢ Roles and positions in the organization and number of employees at each job level †¢ Extent of specialization †¢ Communication channels †¢ Control systems †¢ Coordination and span of control †¢ Reward systems †¢ Workflow systems and the like 3. Perceptions, attitudes, and behavioral responses of organizational members and client systems (as applicable) †¢ Nature of the work Workflow interdependencies †¢ Superiors in the organization †¢ Participation in decision making †¢ Client systems †¢ Co-workers †¢ Rewards provided by the organization, such as pay raises and fringe benefits †¢ Opportunities for advancement in the organization †¢ Organization’s attitudes toward employees family responsibilities †¢ Company’s involvement with community, civic, and other social groups †¢ Company’s tolerance of employees taking time off from the job LITERATURE SURVEY Good literature survey ensure that: 1. Important variables that are likely to influence the problem situation are not left out of the study 2.A clearer idea emerges as to what variables would be most important to consider (parsimony), why they would be consid ered important, and how they should be investigated to solve the problem. Thus, the literature survey helps the development of the theoretical framework and hypotheses for testing 3. The problem statement can be made with precision and clarity 4. Testability and replicability of the findings of the current research are enhanced 5. One does not run the risk of â€Å"reinventing the wheel† that is, wasting efforts on trying to rediscover something that is already known 6.The problem investigated is perceived by the scientific community as relevant and significant PROBLEM DEFINITION †¢ Narrow down the problem from its original broad base and define the issues of concern more clearly. †¢ It is critical that the focus of further research, or in other words, the problem, be unambiguously identified and defined. †¢ No amount of good research can find solutions to the situation, if the critical issue or the problem to be studied is not clearly pinpointed. †¢ A pro blem does not necessarily mean that something is seriously wrong with a current situation that needs to be rectified immediately. A â€Å"problem† could simply indicate an interest in an issue where finding the right answers might help to improve an existing situation. †¢ It is fruitful to define a problem as any situation where a gap exists between the actual and the desired ideal states. †¢ â€Å"Is this factor I have identified an antecendent, the real problem, or the consequence? † Problem definition or problem statement: a clear, precise, and succinct statement of the question or issue that is to be investigated with the goal of finding an answer or solution. Could pertain to: 1. Existing business problems where a manager is looking for a solution (applied research) 2.Situations that may not pose any current problems but which the manager feels have scope for improvement (applied research) 3. Areas where some conceptual clarity is needed for better theor y building (basic research) 4. Situations in which a researcher is trying to answer a research question empirically because of interest in the topic (basic research) CHAPTER V NEED FOR THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK Theoretical framework: a conceptual model of how one theorizes or makes logical sense of the relationships among the several factors that have been identified as important to the problem. This theory flows logically from documentation of previous research in the problem area. ? Integrating one’s logical beliefs with published research, taking into consideration the boundaries and constraints governing the situation, is pivotal in developing a scientific basis for investigating the research problem. ? Theoretical framework: discusses the interrelationships among the variables that are deemed to be integral to the dynamics of the situation being investigated. From the theoretical framework, then, testable hypotheses can be developed to examine whether the theory formulated i s valid or not. ? The entire research rests on the basis of the theoretical framework. VARIABLES Variable: anything that can take on differing or varying values. 4 main types of variables: 1. Dependent variable (also known as the criterion variable) 2. Independent variable (also known as predictor variable) 3. Moderating variable 4. Intervening variable Dependent variable: †¢ Variable of primary interest to the researcher The researcher’s goal is to understand and describe the dependent variable, or to explain its variability, or predict it †¢ The main variable that lends itself for investigation as a viable factor †¢ It is possible to have more than one dependent variable in a study Pantesan! Mungkin ini yang dimaksud aswin dengan pertanyaan yang selalu dia tujukan ke gue: â€Å"WHAT DO YOU WANT†¦.. tujuan lo apa sih Lo mau apa ha †. Nah, kalo kayak gini gue jadi bingung lagi nih. Jadi dependent variable gue jumlah pengunjung atraksi wisata budaya PBB atau keinginan mengunjungi atraksi wisata budaya PBB Duh jadi bingung mikir lagi deh†¦.Wahai teman, makanya selalu tanyakan dan pastikan â€Å"tujuan akhir apa yang lo mau †. Itulah dependent variable lo†¦ (hmm,,, sepertinya ini ga cuma berlaku buat penelitian deh, tapi dalam kehidupan nyata lo juga! what do you want!!! ) Independent variable: †¢ One that influences the dependent variable in either a positive or negative way †¢ When the independent variable is present, the dependent variable is also present †¢ With each unit of increase in the independent variable, there is an increase or decrease in the dependent variable also †¢ Variance in the dependent variable is accounted for by the independent variableModerating variable: †¢ One that has a strong contingent effect on the independent variable-dependent variable relationship †¢ Whenever the relationship between the independent variable and dependent variable becomes contingent or dependent on another variable, we say that the third variable has a moderating effect on the independent variable-dependent variable relationship †¢ The variable that moderates the relationship is known as the moderating variable Intervening variable One that surfaces between the time the independent variables start operating to influence the dependent variable and the time their impact is felt on it †¢ There is thus a temporal quality or time dimension to the intervening variable †¢ The intervening variable surfaces as a function of the independent variable(s) operating in any situation, and helps to conceptualize and explain the influence of the independent variable(s) on the dependent variable THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK ? It becomes evident at this stage that to arrive at good solutions to the roblem, one should correctly identify the problem first, and then the variables that contribute to it. ? After identifying the appropriate variables, the next step is to elabor ate the network of associations among the variables, so that relevant hypotheses can be developed and subsequently tested. ? Based on the results of hypotheses testing (which would indicate whether or not the hypotheses have been supported), the extent to which the problem can be solved would become evident.Theoretical framework: elaborates the relationships among the variables, explains the theory underlying these relations, and describes the nature and direction of the relationships. A good theoretical framework identifies and labels the important variables in the situation that are relevant to the problem identified. Berarti gue bener dong†¦gue ga ngikutin teori dan penelitian lainnya secara plek-plekan sama! Gue pake mereka dengan menyesuaikan diri dengan kondisi kasus gue, si PBB. 5 basic features that should be incorporated in any theoretical framework: 1.The variables considered relevant to the study should be clearly identified and labeled in the discussions. 2. The dis cussions should state how two or more variables are related to one another. This should be done for the important relationships that are theorized to exist among the variables. 3. If the nature and direction of the relationships can be theorized on the basis of findings of previous research, then there should be an indication in the discussions as to whether the relationships would be positive or negative. 4. There should be a clear explanation of why we would expect these relationships to exist.This arguments could be drawn from the previous research findings. 5. A schematic diagram of the theoretical framework should be given so that the reader can see and easily comprehend the theorized relationship. HYPOTHESES DEVELOPMENT Hypotheses development: formulating such testable statement Hypotheses: a logically conjectured relationship between two or more variables expressed in the form of a testable statement ? To call a relationship â€Å"statistically significant†, we should be confident that 95 times out of 100 the observed relationship will hold true ? Only a 5% chance that the relationship would not be detectedStatement of hypotheses: format †¢ If-then statement †¢ Directional ? The direction of the relationship between the variables (positive/negative) is indicated ? The nature of the difference between two groups on a variable (more than/less than) is postulated †¢ Nondirectional ? Do postulate a relationship or difference, but offer no indication of the direction of these relationships or differences ? It may be conjectured that there would be a significant relationship between two variables, we may not be able to say whether the relationship would be positive or negative ?Formulated either because the relationships or differences have never been previously explored & no basis for indicating the direction, or because there have been conflicting findings in previous research studies on the variables Null and alternate hypotheses â₠¬ ¢ Null hypothesis: a proposition that states a definitive, exact relationship between two variables ? States that the population correlation between two variables is equal to zero or that the difference in the means of two groups in the population is equal to zero (or some definite number) ?Expressed as no (significant) relationship between two variables or no (significant) difference between two groups †¢ Alternate hypotheses: the opposite of the null ? Statement expressing a relationship between two variables or indicating differences between groups †¢ If we reject the null hypothesis, then all permissible alternative hypotheses relating to the particular relationship tested could be supported Example: †¢ Directional (group differences) ? Null hypothesis: H0 :  µM =  µW H0 :  µM –  µW = 0 ? Alternate hypothesis: HA :  µM <  µW HA :  µM >  µW †¢ Nondirectional (group differences) ? Null hypothesis: H0 :  µAM =  µAS H0 :  µAM â€⠀œ  µAS = 0 Alternate hypothesis: H0 :  µAM ?  µAS †¢ Directional (relationship between 2 variables) ? Null hypothesis: H0 : there is no relationship between stress experienced on the job and the job satisfaction of employees H0 : ? = 0 ? Alternate hypothesis: HA : ? < 0 †¢ Nondirectional (relationship between 2 variables) ? Null hypothesis: H0 : ? = 0 ? Alternate hypothesis: HA : ? ? 0 Steps in hypotheses testing: 1. State the null and the alternate hypotheses 2. Choose the appropriate statistical test depending on whether the data collected are parametric or nonparametric 3. Determine the level of significance desired (p=0. 5, or more, or less) 4. See if the output results from computer analysis indicate that the significance level is met. If, as in the case of Pearson correlation analysis in Excel software, the significance level is not indicated in the printout, look up the critical values that defined the regions of acceptance on the appropriate table [(t, F, X2 ) –see tables at the end of the book]. This critical value demarcates the region of rejection from that of acceptance of the null hypotheses. 5. When the resultant value is larger than critical value, the null hypotheses is rejected, and the alternate accepted.If the calculated value is less than the critical value, the null is accepted and the alternate rejected. Hypotheses generation and testing can be done both through deduction and induction: †¢ Deduction: the theoretical model is first developed, testable hypotheses are then formulated, data collected, and then the hypotheses are tested. †¢ Induction: new hypotheses are formulated based on what is known from the data already collected, which are then tested. CHAPTER VI RESEARCH DESIGN †¢ Purpose of the study †¢ Types of investigation †¢ Extent of researcher interference †¢ Study setting Unit of analysis (population to be studied) †¢ Time horizon PURPOSE OF THE STUDY Exploratory study: à ¢â‚¬ ¢ When not much is known about the situation at hand, or no information is available on how similar problems or research issues have been solved in the past †¢ To better comprehend the nature of the problem since very few studies might have been conducted in that area †¢ When some facts are known, but more information is needed for developing a viable theoretical framework †¢ For obtaining a good graps of the phenomena of interest and advancing knowledge through subsequent theory building and hypotheses testingDescriptive study: †¢ To ascertain and be able to describe the characteristics of the variables of interest in a situation †¢ The goal: to offer to the researcher a profile or to describe relevant aspects of the phenomena of interest from an individual, organization, industry-oriented, or other perspective †¢ Present data in meaningful form, help to: ? Understand the characteristics of a group in a given situation ? Think systematically about aspects in a given situation ? Offer ideas for further probe and research ? Help make certain simple decisions Hypotheses testing: Explain the nature of certain relationships, or establish the differences among groups or the independence of two or more factors in a situation †¢ To explain the variance in the dependent variable or to predict organizational outcome Case study analysis: †¢ Involve in-depth, contextual analyses of matters relating to similar situations in other organizations †¢ Problem-solving technique †¢ Qualitative in nature, useful in applying solutions to current problems based on past problem-solving experiences †¢ Useful in understanding certain phenomena, and generating further theories for empirical testingTYPE OF INVESTIGATION Causal study: the study in which the researcher wants to delineate the cause of one or more problems Correlational study: when the researcher is interested in delineating the important variables associated with the problem STUDY SETTING Field studies: correlational studies done in organizations Field experiments: studies conducted to establish cause-and-effect relationship using the same natural environment in which employees normally fuctionLab experiments: experiments done to establish cause and effect relationship beyond the possibility of the least doubt require the creation of an artificial, contrived environment in which all the extraneous factors are strictly controlled. Similar subjects are choosen carefully to respond to certain manipulated stimuli UNIT OF ANALYSIS Unit of analysis: level of aggregation of the data collected during the subsequent data analysis stage. Depend on problem statement focuses. Individual: data gathered from each individual and treating each employee’s response as an individual data sourceDyads: interested in studying two-persons interactions, then several two-persons groups Groups: even though we may gather relevant data from all individuals compr ising, we would aggregate the individual data into group data so as to see the differences among some groups (missal jadi 6 group) Our research question determines the unit of analysis. TIME HORIZON Cross-sectional/one-shot studies: data are gathered just once, perhaps over a period of days or weeks or moths, in order to answer a research questionLongitudinal studies: data on the dependent variable are gathered at two or more points in time to answer the research question CHAPTER VIII OPERATIONAL DEFINITION Operationalizing the concepts: reduction of abstract concept to render them measurable in a tangible way Operationalizing: defining a concept to render it measurable, is done by looking at the behavioral dimensions, facets, or properties denoted by the concept Operationalizing the concept: ? They would probably have some typical broad characteristics, which we call dimensions. ? Examining each of the dimension and breaking each further into its elements ?These should somehow be o bservable and quantitatively measurable What an operational definition is not: †¢ Does not describe the correlates of the concept †¢ Does not consist of delineating the reasons, antecedents, consequences, or correlates of the concept If we either operationalize the concepts incorrectly or confuse them with other concepts, then we will not have valid measures. This means that we will not have â€Å"good† data, and our research will not be scientific. Yeah†¦kalo kita salah mengoperasionalisasikan suatu variabel, fatal akibatnya.Bisa-bisa kita salah bikin pertanyaan buat diukur nilainya. Jelek deh datanya. (kayaknya gue baru sadar deh kalo gue salah operasionalisasi. Hix. ) Tips agar tidak salah operasionalisasi variabel: ? Bikin landasan teori yang bagus! semua berawal dari landasan teori! ? Selalu temukan definisi yang tepat dari sebuah konsep ataupun variabel. DEFINISI itu kunci yang penting! Kalo kata Lovelock -si professor pemasaran jasa yang kita selalu puny a kunci cinta- : If you can’t define something, you can’t measure it, and what you can’t measure you can’t manage. Punya definisi yang tepat, pasti akan menuntun lo kepada operasionalisasi variabel yang tepat. Ini teori gue, hehe ((((( (berdasarkan pengalaman pribadi). Pantesan, aswin selalu bertanya pada gue: â€Å"ini definisinya apa?! Itu definisinya apa?! †. Hmmmm†¦. pantes†¦aku baru mengerti sekarang†¦. SCALES Scale: a tool or mechanism by which individuals are distinguished as to how they differ from one another on the variables of interest to our study 4 basic types of scales: nominal, ordinal, interval, and ratio Nominal scale: One that allows researcher to assign subjects to certain categories or groups ?Assigned code number ? These number serve as simple and convenient category labels with no intrinsic value, other than to assign respondents to one of two nonoverlapping or mutually exclusive categories ? Note that the categ ories are also collectively exhaustive ? The information is to calculate the percentage (or frequency) Ordinal scale: not only categorizes the variables in such a way as to denote differences among the various categories, it also rank-orders the categories in some meaningful way ?Helps the researcher to determine the percentage of respondents who consider interaction with others as most important, those who consider using a number of different skills as most important, and so on Interval scale: let us measure the distance between any two points on the scale ? Helps us to compute the means and the standard deviations of the responses on the variables ? Not only groups individuals according to certain categories and taps the order of these groups, it also measures the magnitude of the differences in the preferences among individuals ? The origin, or the starting point, could be any arbitrary number ?More powerful scale than the nominal and ordinal scale, and has for its measure of cen tral tendency the arithmetic mean ? It measures of dispersion are the range, the standard deviation, and the variance Ratio scale: not only measures the magnitude of the differences between points on the scale but also taps the proportions in the differences ? It has an absolute (in contrast to an arbitrary) zero point, which is a meaningful measurement point ? The most powerful of the 4 scales because it has a unique zero origin (not an arbitrary origin) and subsumes all the properties of the other three scalesUse of 4 types of scales: †¢ Nominal scale: for obtaining personal data such as gender or department †¢ Ordinal scale: to rank the preferences or usage of various brands of a product by individuals and to rank order individuals, objects, or events †¢ Interval scale: when responses to various items that measure a variable can be tapped on a five-point (or seven-point or any other number of points) scale, which can thereafter be summated across the items †¢ Ratio scale: when exact numbers on objective (as opposed to subjective) factor are called for CHAPTER IXGOODNESS OF MEASURES Goodness of measures: reasonably sure that the instruments we use in our research do indeed measure the variables they are supposed to, and that they measure them accurately Item analysis: to see if the items in the instrument belong there or not. ? The means between the high-score group and the low-score group are tested to detect significant difference through the t-values ? The items with a high t-value (test which is able to identify the highly discriminating items in the instrument) are then included in the instrumentRELIABILITY Reliability: tests how consistently a measuring instrument measures whatever concept it is measuring †¢ Measure stability and consistency Reliability: †¢ Stability of measures: the ability of a measure to remain the same over time – despite uncontrollable testing conditions or the state of the respondents themselv es ? Test-retest reliability: the reliability coefficient obtained with a repetition of the same measure on a second occasion, the higher the better ?Parallel-form reliability: when responses on two comparable sets of measures tapping the same construct are highly correlated †¢ Internal consistency of measures: the items should â€Å"hang together as a set† and be capable of independently measuring the same concept so that the respondents attach the same overall meaning to each of the items ? Interitem consistency reliability: test of the consistency of respondents answer to all the items in a measure. To the degree that the items are independent measures of the same concept, they will be correlated with one another.Cronbach’s coefficient alpha used for multipoint-scaled items, Kuder-Richardson formulas used for dichotomous items. The higher the coefficients, the better the measuring instrument ? Split-half reliability: reflects the correlations between two halves of an instrument VALIDITY Validity: tests how well an instrument that is developed measures the particular concept it is intended to measure †¢ Whether we measure the right concept Validity: †¢ Content validity: ensures that the measure includes an adequate and representative set of items that tap the concept.A function of how well the dimensions and elements of a concept have been delineated †¢ Criterion-related validity: established when the measure differentiates individuals on a criterion it is expected to predict †¢ Construct validity: testifies to how well the results obtained from the use of the measure fit the theories around which the test is designed ? Correlational analysis: as in the case of establishing concurrent and predictive validity or convergent and discriminant validity ?Factor analysis: a multivariate technique that would confirm the dimensions of the concept that have been operationally defined, as well as indicate which of the items are mo st appropriate for each dimension ? Multitrait: multimethod matrix of correlations derived from measuring concepts by different forms and different methods CHAPTER XI POPULATION, ELEMENT, POPULATION FRAME, SAMPLE, & SUBJECT Population: the entire group of people, events, or things of interest that the researcher wishes to investigateElement: a single member of the population Population frame: a listing of all the elements in the population from which the sample is drawn Sample: a subset of the population, it comprises some members selected from it Subject: a single member of the sample SAMPLING Sampling: the process of selecting a sufficient number of elements from the population, so that the study of the sample and an understanding of its properties or characteristics would make it possible for us to generalize such properties or characteristics to the population elements ?All conclusions drawn about the sample under study are generalized to the population ? Xbar, S, S2 – ar e used as estimates of the population parameters ? , ? , ? 2 Reason for sampling: †¢ Self-evident †¢ Time, cost, and other human resources considered †¢ Sometimes likely to produce more reliable results Representativeness of samples: †¢ Rarely will the sample be the exact replica of the population from which it is drawn †¢ If we choose the sample in a scientific way, we can be reasonably sure that the sample statistic (e. . ,Xbar, S, S2) is fairly close to the population parameter (i. e. ,? , ? , ? 2) NORMALITY OF DISTRIBUTIONS ? Attributes or characteristics of the population are generally normally distributed ? If we take a sufficiently large number of samples and choose them with care, we will have a sampling distribution of the means that has normality ? This is the reason that the two important issues in sampling are the sample size (n) and the sampling design ?If our sampling design and sample size are right, the sample mean Xbar will be within close r ange of the true population mean (? ) ? The more representative of the population the sample is, the more generalizable are the findings of the research 2 major types of sampling design: 1. Probability sampling †¢ Simple random sampling †¢ Complex probability sampling ? Systematic sampling ? Stratified random sampling ? Proportionate and disproportionate stratified random sampling ? Cluster sampling ? Single-stage and multistage cluster sampling Area sampling ? Double sampling 2. Nonprobability sampling †¢ Convenience sampling †¢ Purposive sampling ? Judgment sampling ? Quota sampling PROBABILITY SAMPLING Probability sampling: when elements in the population have a known chance of being chosen as subjects in the sample Simple random sampling: every element in the population has a known and equal chance of being selected as a subject ? Best: when the generalizability of the findings to the whole population is the main objective of the study Complex probability sam pling: Systematic sampling: drawing every nth element in the population starting with a randomly chosen element between 1 and n ? Best: when the population frame is large, and a listing of the elements is conveniently available at one place †¢ Stratified random sampling: a process stratification or segregation, followed by random selection of subjects from each stratum. The population is first divided into mutually exclusive groups that are relevant, appropriate, and meaningful in the context of the study ?Best: when differentiated information is needed regarding various strata within the population, which are known to differ in their parameters †¢ Proportionate and disproportionate stratified random sampling: †¢ Proportionate: the subjects drawn from each stratum, members represented in the sample from each stratum will be proportionate to the total number of elements in the respective strata †¢ Disproportionate: the subjects drawn from each stratum, the number of subjects from each stratum will now be altered, while keeping the sample size unchanged Cluster sampling: when several groups with intragroup heterogeneity and intergroup homogeneity are found, then a random sampling of the clusters or groups can ideally be done and information gathered from each of the members in the randomly chosen clusters ? Best: when heterogeneous group is to be studied at one time †¢ Single-stage and multistage cluster sampling: the division of of the population into convenient clusters, randomly choosing the required number of clusters as sample subjects, and investigating all the elements in each of the randomly chosen clusters Area sampling: constitutes geographical clusters, when the research pertains to populations within identifiable geographical areas such as coutries, city blocks, or particular boundaries within a locality ? Best: when the goal of the research is confined to a particular locality or area †¢ Double sampling: where initially a sample is used in a study to collect some preliminary information of interest, and later a subsample of this primary sample is used to examine the matter in more detail ? Best: provided added information at minimal additional expenditureNONPROBABILITY SAMPLING Nonprobability sampling: the elements in the population do not have any probabilities attached to their being chosen as sample subjects Convenience sampling: collection of information from members of the population who are conveniently available to provide it ? Best: to obtain some â€Å"quick† information to get a feel for the phenomenon or variables of interest Purposive sampling: confined a specific types of people who can provide the desired information, either because they are the only ones who have it, or conform to some criteria set by the researcher Judgment sampling: the choice of subjects who are most advantageously placed or in the best position to provide the information required ? Best: where the collect ion of â€Å"specialized informed inputs† on the topic area researched is vital, and the use of any other sampling design would not offer opportunities to obtain the specialized information †¢ Quota sampling: a form of proportionate stratified sampling, in which a predetermined proportion of people are sampled from different groups, but on a convenience basis ?Best: for the inclusion of all groups in the system researched ISSUES IN DETERMINING SAMPLE SIZE 1. Precision ? How close our estimate is to the true population characteristic ? The narrower this interval, the greater the precision ? A function of the range of variability in the sampling distribution of the sample mean ? If we want to reduce the standard error given a particular standard deviation in the sample, we need to increase the sample size 2. Confidence ? How certain we are that our estimates will really hold true for the population ?Reflects the level of certainty with which we can state that our estimates of the population parameters will hold true ? A 95% confidence is the conventionally accepted level for most business research, most commonly expressed by denoting the significance level as p? 0. 05 ? At least 95 times out of 100, our estimate will reflect the true population characteristic The sample size, n, is a function of: 1. The variability in the population 2. Precision or accuracy needed 3. Confidence level desired 4. Type of sampling plan used 4 aspects while making decisions on the sample size: . How much precision is really needed in estimating the population characteristics of interest – what is the margin of allowable errors? 2. How much confidence is really needed – how much chance can we take of making errors in estimating the population parameters? 3. To what extent is there variability in the population on the characteristics investigated? 4. What is the cost-benefit analysis of increasing the sample size? Roscoe (1975); rules of thumb for determining sample size: 1. Sample sizes larger than 30 and less than 500 are appropriate for most research 2.Where samples are to be broken into subsamples (ex:male/female, etc), a minimum sample size of 30 for each category is necessary 3. In multivariate research (including multiple regression analysis), the sample size should be several times (preferably 10 times or more) as large as the number of variables in the study 4. For simple experimental research with tight experimental controls (matched pairs, etc), successful research is possible with samples as small as 10 to 20 in size Kalo menurut gue sih, tahapan yang paling genting dan paling kritis ya di pembuatan BAB 3 alias pembuatan/penentuan metodologi ini.Ibaratnya bikin racikan obat, BAB 3 ini kayak tahap ketika lo lagi menentukan takaran dosis setiap elemen ramuan (ya populasi, ya sample, ya lainnya). Kalo dosisnya kurang, pasien ga sembuh, merana harus menderita terus-menerus. Kalo dosisnya berlebihan, pasien over dosis, meledak na nti! Dua-duanya sama-sama gawat. Kalo lo udah bikin BAB 3 lo dengan benar, selanjutnya gampang kok, tinggal ngambil data or sebar kuesioner, analisa. Tingal jalan†¦. ga perlu berlari-lari jatuh bangun kedebak-kedebuk. Well, udah bisa berpikir lebih santai lah†¦.. Tapi inget!!!BAB 3 juga berasal dari BAB 2! Model penelitian lo kan berasal dari landasan teori di BAB 2. Salah teori, bisa-bisa salah model. Salah model, berakibat salah operasionalisasi variabel. Salah operasionalisasi variabel, salah kuesioner. Salah kuesioner, salah data. Salah data, tebak sendiri†¦. Tapi, BAB 2 juga berasal dari BAB 1 lho†¦. Lo kan harus tau permasalahan lo dengan jelas tuh. Apa yang jadi latar belakang permasalahannya, apa hasil akhir yang lo mau. Semua itu yang menentukan teori-teori apa aja yang lo butuhin untuk dicantumin! Hahahaha†¦.Intinya sih, semua harus dikerjakan secara berurutan yah: BAB 1-2-3. Inget prinsip â€Å"rukun† yang gue jabarin di atas†¦. Pokokn ya selamat mengerjakan BAB1,2,3 bolak-balik deh. 1,2,3 – 3,2,1 – 2,1,3 – begitu aja terus! Yang penting: sabar†¦ semua harus dikerjakan dengan ketenangan akal dan pikiran. Nikmatin aja prosesnya((( goodluck yo! CHAPTER XII 4 steps in data analyis: 1. Getting data ready for analyis 2. Getting a feel for the data 3. Testing the goodness of data 4. Testing the hypotheses GETTING DATA READY FOR ANALYSIS Editing data: ? Data have to be edited Information that may have been noted down by the interviewer, observer, or researcher in a hurry must be clearly deciphered so that it may be coded systematically in its entirety ? Incoming mailed questionnaire data have to be checked for incompleteness and inconsistencies Handling blank responses: ? Not all respondents answer every item in the questionnaire ? Blank because the respondent did not understand the question, did not know the answer, was not willing to answer, or was simply indifferent to the need to respond to the entire questionnaire ?Way to handle a blank response: †¢ Assign the midpoint in the scale as the response to that particular item †¢ Allow the computer to ignore the blank responses when the analysis are done †¢ Assign to the item the mean value of the responses of all those who have responded to that particular item †¢ Give the item the mean of the responses of this particular respondent to all other questions measuring this variable †¢ Give the missing response a random number within the range for that scale Coding: ? Code the responses Coding sheet first to transcribe the data from the questionnaire and then key in the data Categorization ? Set up scheme for categorizing the variables such that the several items measuring a concept are all grouped together ? Responses to some of the negatively worded questions have also to be reversed so that all answers are in the same direction Entering data ? Questionnaire data are collected on scanner answer sheet s or tha raw data manually keyed into the computer DATA ANALYSIS 3 objectives in data analysis: 1.Getting a feel for the data 2. Testing the goodness of data 3. Testing the hypotheses developed for the research Feel for the data: †¢ Examination of the measure of central tendency, and how clustered or dispersed the variables are, gives a good idea of how well the questions were framed for tapping the concept †¢ The statistics give feel for the data: ? The frequency distributions for the demographic variables ? The mean, standard deviation, range, and variance on the other dependent and independent variables ?An intercorrelation matrix of the variables, irrespective of whether or not the hypotheses are directly related to these analysis Testing goodness of data: †¢ Reliability: ? Testing consistency and stability ? Consistency indicates how well the items measuring a concept hang together as a set ? Cronbach’s alpha is a reliability coefficient that indicates how well the items in a set are positively correlated to one another ? The closer Cronbach’s alpha is to 1, the higher the internal consistency reliability †¢ Validity: Factorial validity can be established by submitting the data for factor analysis ? The results of factor analysis (a multivariate technique) will confirm whether or not the theorized dimensions emerge Hypotheses testing: †¢ Test the hypotheses already developed for the study Analisis. Selamat merangkai kata. Selamat merangkai logika! Ayo fitut†¦. Yang rajin dong ah! Jangan menunda-nunda! PEKERJAAN TEKNIS SPECIMENT FORMAT FOR REFERENCING [APA FORMAT] Book by single author Leshin, C. B. (1997). Management on the World Wide Web.Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall. Book by more than one author Cornett, M. , Wiley, B. J. , & Sankar, S. (1998) The pleasures of nurturing. London: McMunster Publishing. Book review Nichols, P. (1998). A new look at Home Services [Review of the book Providing Home Services t o the Elderly by Girch, S. ] Family Review Bulletin, 45, 12-13. Journal Article Jeanquart, S. , & Peluchette, J. (1997). Diversity in the workforce and management models. Journal of Social Work Studies, 43 (3), 72-85.

Limit Pricing and Oligopolies

Limit pricing is the type of pricing wherein firms discourage entrants to the market by choosing a low price that is below short-run profit maximizing price but above the competitive level. Firms who engage in limit pricing are forfeiting current profits to earn future profits. The output is being maintained despite the presence of entrants. However, there are still issues whether the application of limit pricing models is profitable for firms (2002). A firm engages in limit pricing by choosing its price and output while an entrant cannot sufficiently cover the average total cost of the remaining market demand. An established firm that is threatened by an entry in a single-period could use limit price as the highest price. This will block the entry. As first explained by Modigliani in 1958, it was assumed that entrants would expect that incumbent firm will continue production at an entry-limiting output with an entry present. It is the same as the Cournot Competition wherein firms believe that its competitors will continue production at the current levels (McAuliffe, 1997). On the other hand, â€Å"classic limit pricing† is another pricing policy where limit pricing allows established firms to earn economic profits while they are preventing the occurrence of entry. It happens if there are economies of sale in production even if the entrants and the incumbent firms have the same costs (McAuliffe, 1997). Another model is explained by Gaskin in 1971, called the dynamic limit pricing. It happens if there are threats from potential competition to a firm for current and future periods. The firms would now depend the rate of entry from the difference between the current price and their marginal costs. If a firm would want to earn high profits at current period, it will set a high price. However, the number of entry will also increase while the price and profit are likely to decrease in the future. On the other hand, if an established firm decided for a lower price, both the entry and the profits will decrease. Moreover, if the firms do not have any cost over the entrants, it will lose its position then the market will be competitive. The competitive outcome of the market however is not astonishing at all since only the price is used by the firm (McAuliffe, 1997). Both in the classic and dynamic limit pricing, the market power of the established firms are restricted due to the potential competition. In the end, they have no choice but to set the price under monopoly level. However, the expectation from an entrant that a firm would always maintain its output is not always true. After the entry period, both firms would earn high profits through high prices and restricted output. An established firm therefore with maintained output after the existence of an entry is not always a threat for an entrant. Otherwise, the established firm should bind for the current period   in order to obtain high profits with high output for the next periods (McAuliffe, 1997). Successful limit pricing could affect the market structure however few firms do set prices equal to or below the monopoly level to discourage entry. Major American companies use different strategies such as advertising and product proliferation  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   to discourage entry (McAuliffe, 1997). Competition is important in the American economy system but what if there is only a small number of competing companies? This condition falls under the oligopoly market. Unlike the monopoly where there is only one seller and many buyers, in oligopoly there is more than one seller (Schenk). In oligopoly, there may be homogenous or heterogeneous products; however entry is deterred by legal restrictions such as banking, minimum efficient scale such as overnight mail service , or strategic behavior (2008). Oligopoly has different models such as the Cournot-Nash Equilibrium of Duopoly and the Collusive Oligopoly. Cournot focused only on duopoly where there are only two firms competing assuming that both sell the same products produced at zero marginal cost. Both firm engage in output that is profit-maximizing expecting that the output of the other firms is maintained or held constant (Lipsey and Crystal, 2007). Under Cournot-Nash equilibrium, duopolists are competing for the quantities where each produces less than a monopoly. However, the sum of the production of both duopolists is more than the monopoly but their economic profits are less than the monopoly. The price is always less than monopoly level but not more than the competitive price (2008). Under Cournot equilibrium, firms would earn less than a monopoly because the duopolists’ outputs are more then the monopoly output. They would earn however more than the perfectly competitive firms since they could decrease the price upon increasing output (Lipsey and Crystal, 2007). Each competing firm is expected to adjust their outputs. However, if they cannot make any more adjustments then equilibrium is reached (Hobbs, 2001). Unlike Cournot-Nash equilibrium with doupolists as competing firms, in collusive oligopoly the firms cooperate in order to have a monopoly power. They may agree in setting price and dividing the output therefore gaining the quantity a monopoly produces and earning the economic profits a monopoly can. The firms are now earning more than doupoly profits (2008). There are many factors for collusion such as the number of sellers, personalities, equality of shares, costs of each firm, and others. There is a possibly that a collusion might disintegrate especially if the firm begin competing and cheating with the other firms (Schenk). Monopolies in the U.S. are most likely to be regulated by the government unlike the oligopolies. Price-fixing by the collusive oligopolies however is not allowed unless for agricultural cooperatives and professional sports league (2006). Collusion oligopolies, just like the doupoly, could turn into competition as well. Firms begin violating the production limits and producing more than they have to. Besides, the price tends to be lower. In the end, the collusion becomes unsuccessful. Bibliography OECD 2002, Limit Pricing, viewed 6 May 2007, . NC State University 2006, Collusive Oligopolies, viewed 6 May 2008, . 2008 Oligopoly, viewed 6 May 2008, . Hobb, B.K. 2001, Cournot Equilibrium, viewed 6 may 2008, . Lipsey, R. G. & Crystal, A. 2007, Doupoly. Oxford University Press, viewed 6 May 2008, . McAuliffe, R. E. 1997, Encyclopedic Dcitionary of Managerial Economics, Blackwell Punlishing, viewed 6 May 2008, . Schenk, R. The Theory of Few Sellers, viewed 6 May 2008, .         

The Project Managment Office System

The Project Managment Office System Free Online Research Papers The project office is the office or department responsible for establishing, maintaining, and enforcing project management processes, procedures, and standards. It provides services, support, and certification for project managers [web definition]. In a broader sense, if an organization undertakes one or two project at any given time, it may able to easily implement project management discipline. However, the larger an organization gets, and the more projects that are executed at one time, the more difficult it becomes to develop a comprehensive methodology, train everyone and enforce the consistent use of the technology on all projects. Without this consistency, the full value of implementing a common value of a project management methodology is not reached (TenStep, Inc). There are many organizations that have started realizing the potential value of establishing a Project Management Office to strengthen their competitive advantage. The PMO structures project management into an organized, systematic approach that includes the following goals (Engle, 2005): 1. Project Definition: Goals and objectives, organization charts, and roles and responsibilities are documented. Some companies adopt a charter that lays out every aspect of the project before the first dollar is spent. 2. Project planning and control: The charter documents what is to be done, and the project plan lays out how it will be accomplished. The project plan includes the schedule, required resources, and budget. 3. Issue Management: Management must identify and address unforeseen issues in a timely manner. Issues in this sense are mainly the issues that need to be addressed in the application that just developed. 4. Risk Management: Risks are identified and monitored at the beginning of the project and alternatives are developed to mitigate them. 5. Change/Scope Management: Few Projects are completed without changes. Changes must be addressed quickly and honestly, with minimal impact to the schedule, staffing and budget. 6. Reporting and Communications: The PMO typically reports on the project each week and identifies significant issues frequently. These reports typically focus on schedule, budget, and resources. 7. Quality Management: Quality management seeks to identify gaps during the project so that they can be addressed quickly 8. Financial Management: The PMO develops and administers the project budget. Reports are prepared weekly that compare actual expenditures to the budget in order to identify the issues before they can impact the project. Overview of ABC Technologies, Inc ABC Technologies is a leading international system integration consultancy with superior value-priced services for both private and government sector clients. ABC Technologies offers services on a project or strategic staffing basis, in both custom and enterprise resource planning (ERP) package environments, and across all technology platforms, operating systems and infrastructures. ABC Technologies has earned a reputation as a unique firm in a fast-paced marketplace. ABC Technologies collaborates with customers to consistently and cost-effectively plan, execute and deliver high-quality services and results. Current Issues ABC Technologies is currently persuading more project contracts than Time and Material contracts. As a result there are many different projects that are being developed simultaneously under different Project Managers. Each project has its own processes of which some are shared among different projects and others are project based. There are enterprise-wide processes that can be used across many projects. In this paper the issues are identified, categorized and discussed based on Project Management Functions outlined above. Issue #1, Project Planning and Control: Project planning is the key element in project control. It helps to direct and guide the project in the right direction and thereby assists in completing the project on schedule. Project planning is the essential part of good project management (Giridhar, 1998). The Project Directors and Project Managers develop project planning using Microsoft Project for individual projects and upload them in the project intranet website. But still the managers and directors at ABC Technologies plan their project by conventional methods such as known facts, historical data, and in the absence of former, best educated guesses. Thus, the estimates takes the form dictated by history of experience and are generally based on previous successes and measures used to evaluate them (Hartman, Jergeas, 1996). Issue #2, Issues Management: ABC Technologies currently uses a vendor product to log and track issues. This software does not integrate with Change Control software, Risk Management software. If an issue is entered and the developer or architect determines that the issue opens up a change process the issue is closed in the software and separate process is started in the change control. Some issues identified may even affect the project planning and delivery process. The project managers will only come to know if QA personnel who logged the issue send the report to the project manager. The software that is currently being used does not create any alert to the concerned members of the team other than notifying that an issue has been entered. ABC Technologies inputs far less effort to objective setting for Issues Management. Objective setting for issue management has unique requirements which distinguish it from broader corporate planning processes (Jaques, 2005). The software that the ABC Technologies uses does not address the strategic process of Issues Management. Issue #3, Change/Scope Management A project is a moving target and things change on a regular basis. Currently ABC Technologies put a change control process in place and but varies from project to project. The Project Managers fills up a long form on an intranet site created exclusively for each project to initiate the change control process. The process does not get input from any other modules or software other than manual input from project managers. As a result it is time consuming process for the project manager to initiate a change control process. The Project manager is the admin for the site who can provide or deny access to the site. This one long form gets the input from various quarters such as clients, developers, QAs and others. Controlling â€Å"Change† is a key factor to a successfully managed project. Implementing a good change control procedure will have a significant impact on the project’s bottom line (Chen, 1992). With the current process, the project managers tend to create only scope creep because many of the developers are not even aware of change control process. I heard the project manager complain that we changed the design of the product for the client free of cost. Issue #4, Reporting and Communications: The project status reports are the one that most of the software developers fail to produce in time because of their other engagements. It is learnt that very few project managers at ABC Technologies insist on weekly project status report and while others use their judgment and oral communications to write their report for their bosses. There is absolutely no automated report generator at ABC Technologies that the project team can use. Project Managers walk a fine line when it comes to requesting (and actually getting) status reports from team members. The team members have to maintain their own status reports on their computers in case of reviewing or tracking back. Although the project managers regularly schedule the meeting on a weekly basis there is absolutely no record of discussions. Sometimes it leads event to pointing fingers in the event of something goes wrong. There is proper documentation other than the email sent after the meeting about the discussions held during the meeting hours. Issue #5, Risk Management: IT projects are renowned for their high failure rate. Risk management is an essential process for the successful delivery of IT projects. The top five risks, in order, are: personnel shortfalls, unreasonable project schedule and budget, unrealistic expectations, incomplete requirements, and diminished window of opportunity due to late delivery of software (Baccarini, Salm, Love, 2004). Since ABC Technologies is service oriented company, the project managers face the above mentioned five risks in their day-to-day project activities. Sometimes because of the nature of the economy, the companies such as ABC Technologies are compelled to venture into risky contracts. On top of already known risks, some more risks are added as the project progresses. This is due to lack to process in place. Sometimes the project managers and team members fail to identify and resolve the issues in a timely manner that may turn into risks. Recommendations Issue #1, Project Planning and Control: The enterprise solution will have a module for project planning and control. The project planning and control module is divided into two sub modules: time scheduling, and resource scheduling. The module will use PERT and CPM network methods to plan the project. The managers and directors will provide the necessary information to the system. The system should also support the data entered in Microsoft Project and do necessary calculations. The module should be designed to include the following requirements (Giridhar, 1998): Listing activities with durations, complying with WBS, complying with working days and holidays in organization, assigning resources required for each activity, defining resource availability, optimization of resource requirements, monitoring progress, controlling and forecasting problems, reporting the status of the project, and comparison of present status versus the original schedules. Issue #2, Issues Management: The proposed solution includes the module for handling Issues Management. The module will help the project team to go through the four important steps prescribed to Issues Management by Howard Chase: Define the problem, analyze strengths and weaknesses of solutions as related to the problem, set priority on proposed solutions to the problem, and use the mechanisms of your trade to solve the problem (Chase, 1999) The module will address the primary goal of Issue Management Plan – Issues are identified and assigned to appropriate project team member, issues determined to impact the scope, schedule, or quality of the project will be inputted into change management process automatically, resolutions or decisions are documented and communicated to all affected parties, generate reports on timely manner such as weekly, monthly, or quarterly set by the project manager. Issue# 3, Change/Scope Management: The proposed solution will have a Change/Scope management module that provides access to required personals to view all changes in one place. The module will show cumulative impact in time and dollars of changes. The module will force the team members to think through the impact of the changes. The module will automatically generate the change requests approval. This module should be able to be fed directly from the Issues Management module proposed earlier and feed the same and generate the necessary alerts to the project managers on impacting the triple constraints of the project – time, cost, and performance. This module should allow managers to trace the impact of changes and defects on a project’s requirements, while allowing testers to link test plans and results to business and functional requirements (Compuware, 2000). Issue #4, Reporting and Communications: The system must be able to link to and extract information from the proper sources and present this information in an appropriate format for a decision making process (Paterson, 1966). The proposed solution will integrate the time entry software into the reporting module whereby the team members are required to enter the description for each time entry. Thus the team members do not need to spend extra time to write the report to their managers and instead the managers should be able to generate the report in a timely manner. The module should be able to support the attachments from Microsoft Word, Excel, etc. The module also should be able to handle XML formats. Issue #5, Risk management: One of the key challenges in implementing the risk management process is the quantification of benefits (Noor, Joyner, Martin Jr., 2002). One metric that is used to quantify the benefit of the risk management is the ROI calculation. The system should be able to provide this calculation when the project managers provide mitigation cost, mitigation effectiveness (ME) and risk impact($). Risk management and Issues Management modules should be able to exchange the data between themselves. The module should be able to export the data into other applications such as spreadsheets. The module should provide report generator that allows defining reports. The module must perform qualitative and quantitative risk management. The managers should be able to view the impact of uncertainties either as cost or time. Proposed Solution The proposed solution integrates the five different modules mentioned above into one enterprise system. The solution will be developed as web-based application but run as windows applications. The UI elements will be developed using Microsoft Windows Forms in .NET framework. ABC Technologies have recently developed and successfully implemented enterprise solution using the same architecture. Thus ABC Technologies can leverage the expertise and experience into this new venture. Proposed Infrastructure (Hardware, and Software) ABC Technologies is required to have one web server and one database server. The web server will host the web services that interact with the Database server. The web services will be developed in VB .NET. The database server will have one instance of SQL Server 2000. The web server is firewall protected so no outsiders who don’t have access can talk to the web server. The web and database servers will run on Windows Server 2003 operating system. The Client PCs must be installed with .NET Framework 1.1. The application should be available connected as well as disconnected. In case of internet shut down, the clients (remote) should be able to use application. In order to facilitate this environment the client PCs must be installed with Microsoft SQLServer Desktop Engine (MSDE). Similarly for the disconnected environment the web services are all available as standalone libraries. ABC Technologies will decide on providing access to external clients on signing the contract. The new clients should be able to download the application to their PCs by clicking on the link provided at the time of granting access. Thus ABC Technologies can maintain their list of clients who have access to their application outside their firewall. Training ABC Technologies will develop a web based training material and every employee will have to spend at least an hour a day for a week to go through the training material prior to the implementation. Web based training is more appropriate than Instructor-led training because as ABC Technologies acquires new contracts, it helps the new clients to go through the training in similar manner. Implementation, Support and Upgrade The solution is deployed to the client PCs through the internet. The application is available on the internet. The users will have to go to the web site and click on the URL. The application then gets downloaded to the client PCs. ABC Technologies will also upgrade the application in an acceptable frequency and instruct the current users via E-Mail that an upgrade is available. Since ABC Technologies is service based company, it will be expensive to keep a dedicated team to support the application. ABC Technologies will have to rotate the support personnel to maintain the application. Time and Cost The total time required to design, develop, and implement the solution is four months – one month to design, two months for coding and another one month for QA. ABC Technologies will incur the cost of only two servers – Database and Web Servers. The PCs were already bought and in use. The networks are also already in place. The ABC Technologies has already bought MSDN subscriptions for other projects. The cost for the resources is also very minimal because the ABC technologies will use the personnel who are available on bench and have experience in .NET Framework. ABC Technologies does not have to hire any new consultants to venture into this project. ABC technologies can keep the cost down through rotation by making use of the consultants who come on bench. References Paul Engle. â€Å"The Project Management Office†. Norcross: Jan 2005. P. Giridhar. â€Å"The Computerized Project Planning System†. AACE International Transactions. Morgantown: 1998 Francis T. Hartman, George F. Jergeas. â€Å"Simplifying Project Success Metrics†. AACE International Transactions. Morgantown: 1996. Tony Jaques. â€Å"Systematic Objective Setting for Effective Issue Management†. Journal of Public Affairs. London: 2005 Howard Chase. Chase foresees dismal future for public relations. It has been captured by marketing. Public Relations Quarterly: 1999. Mark T.Chen, â€Å"Change Control and Tracking†. American Association of Cost Engineers. Morgantown: 1992. Compuware, â€Å"Tools for Accelerating Team software Development†. PR NewsWire. New York: 2000. T.T. Paterson, â€Å"Management Theory†. Business Publications. London:1966. David Baccarini, Geoff Salm, Peter E.D. Love. â€Å"Management of Risks in Information Technology Projects†. Industrial Management + Data Systems. Wembley: 2004. Iqbal Noor, Terry Joyner, Robert J. Martin Jr. â€Å"Challenges of Implementing Risk Management Processes†. AACE International Transactions. Morgantown: 2002. Research Papers on The Project Managment Office SystemAnalysis of Ebay Expanding into AsiaIncorporating Risk and Uncertainty Factor in CapitalRiordan Manufacturing Production PlanOpen Architechture a white paperLifes What IfsResearch Process Part OneInfluences of Socio-Economic Status of Married MalesMarketing of Lifeboy Soap A Unilever ProductBionic Assembly System: A New Concept of SelfDefinition of Export Quotas

Francisco Pizarro, Spanish Conqueror of the Inca

Francisco Pizarro, Spanish Conqueror of the Inca Francisco Pizarro (ca. 1475–June 26, 1541) was a Spanish explorer and conquistador. With a small force of Spaniards, he was able to capture Atahualpa, emperor of the mighty Inca Empire, in 1532. Eventually, he led his men to victory over the Inca, collecting mind-boggling quantities of gold and silver along the way. Fast Facts: Francisco Pizarro Known For: Spanish conquistador who conquered the Inca EmpireBorn: ca. 1471–1478 in Trujillo, Extremadura, SpainParents: Gonzalo Pizarro Rodrà ­guez de Aguilar and Francisca Gonzalez, a maid in the Pizarro householdDied: June 26, 1541 in Lima, PeruSpouse(s): Inà ©s Huaylas Yupanqui (Quispe Sisa).Children: Francisca Pizarro Yupanqui, Gonzalo Pizarro Yupanqui Early Life Francisco Pizarro was born between 1471 and 1478 as one of several illegitimate children of Gonzalo Pizarro Rodrà ­guez de Aguilar, a nobleman in Extremadura province, Spain. Gonzalo had fought with distinction in wars in Italy; Franciscos mother was Francisca Gonzalez, a maid in the Pizarro household. As a young man, Francisco lived with his mother and siblings and tended animals in the fields. As a bastard, Pizarro could expect little in the way of inheritance and decided to become a soldier. It is likely that he followed in his fathers footsteps to the battlefields of Italy for a time before hearing of the riches of the Americas. He first went to the New World in 1502 as part of a colonization expedition led by Nicols de Ovando. San Sebastin de Uraba and the Darià ©n In 1508, Pizarro joined the Alonso de Hojeda expedition to the mainland. They fought the natives and created a settlement called San Sebastin de Urab. Beset by angry natives and low on supplies, Hojeda set out for Santo Domingo in early 1510 for reinforcements and supplies. When Hojeda did not return after 50 days, Pizarro set out with the surviving settlers to return to Santo Domingo. Along the way, they joined an expedition to settle the Darià ©n region: Pizarro served as second in command to Vasco Nuà ±ez de Balboa. First South American Expeditions In Panama, Pizarro established a partnership with fellow conquistador Diego de Almagro. News of Hernn Cortà ©s audacious (and lucrative) conquest of the Aztec Empire fueled the burning desire for gold among all of the Spanish in the New World, including Pizarro and Almagro. They made two expeditions from 1524 to 1526 along the western coast of South America: harsh conditions and native attacks drove them back both times. On the second trip, they visited the mainland and the Inca city of Tumbes, where they saw llamas and local chieftains with silver and gold. These men told of a great ruler in the mountains, and Pizarro became more convinced than ever that there was another rich Empire like the Aztecs to be looted. Third Expedition Pizarro personally went to Spain to make his case to the king that he should be allowed a third chance. King Charles, impressed with this eloquent veteran, agreed and awarded Pizarro the governorship of lands he acquired. Pizarro brought his four brothers back with him to Panama: Gonzalo, Hernando, Juan Pizarro, and Francisco Martà ­n de Alcntara. In 1530, Pizarro and Almagro returned to the western shores of South America. On his third expedition, Pizarro had about 160 men and 37 horses. They landed on what is now the coast of Ecuador near Guayaquil. By 1532 they made it back to Tumbes: it was in ruins, having been destroyed in the Inca Civil War. The Inca Civil War While Pizarro was in Spain, Huayna Capac, Emperor of the Inca, had died, possibly of smallpox. Two of Huayna Capacs sons began fighting over the Empire: Huscar, the elder of the two, controlled the capital of Cuzco. Atahualpa, the younger brother, controlled the northern city of Quito, but more importantly had the support of three major Inca Generals: Quisquis, Rumià ±ahui, and Chalcuchima. A bloody civil war raged across the Empire as Huscar and Atahualpas supporters fought. Sometime in mid-1532, General Quisquis routed Huscars forces outside of Cuzco and took Huscar prisoner. The war was over, but the Inca Empire was in ruins just as a far greater threat approached: Pizarro and his soldiers. Capture of Atahualpa In November 1532, Pizarro and his men headed inland, where another extremely lucky break was awaiting them. The nearest Inca city of any size to the conquistadors was Cajamarca, and Emperor Atahualpa happened to be there. Atahualpa was savoring his victory over Huscar: his brother was being brought to Cajamarca in chains. The Spanish arrived in Cajamarca unopposed: Atahualpa did not consider them a threat. On November 16, 1532, Atahualpa agreed to meet with the Spanish. The Spanish treacherously attacked the Inca, capturing Atahualpa and murdering thousands of his soldiers and followers. Pizarro and Atahualpa soon made a deal: Atahualpa would go free if he could pay a ransom. The Inca selected a large hut in Cajamarca and offered to fill it half full with golden objects, and then fill the room twice with silver objects. The Spanish quickly agreed. Soon the treasures of the Inca Empire began flooding into Cajamarca. The people were restless, but none of Atahualpas generals dared attack the intruders. Hearing rumors that the Inca generals were planning an attack, the Spanish executed Atahualpa on July 26, 1533. After Atahualpa Pizarro appointed a puppet Inca, Tupac Huallpa, and marched on Cuzco, the heart of the Empire. They fought four battles along the way, defeating the native warriors every time. Cuzco itself did not put up a fight: Atahualpa had recently been an enemy, so many of the people there viewed the Spanish as liberators. Tupac Huallpa sickened and died: he was replaced by Manco Inca, a half-brother to Atahualpa and Huscar. The city of Quito was conquered by Pizarro agent Sebastin de Benalczar in 1534 and, apart from isolated areas of resistance, Peru belonged to the Pizarro brothers. Pizarros partnership with Diego de Almagro had been strained for some time. When Pizarro had gone to Spain in 1528 to secure royal charters for their expedition, he had acquired for himself the governorship of all lands conquered and a royal title: Almagro only got a title and the governorship of the small town of Tumbez. Almagro was furious and nearly refused to participate in their third joint expedition: only the promise of the governorship of as-yet undiscovered lands made him come around. Almagro never quite shook the suspicion (probably correct) that the Pizarro brothers were trying to cheat him out of his fair share of the loot. In 1535, after the Inca Empire was conquered, the crown ruled that the northern half belonged to Pizarro and the southern half to Almagro: however, vague wording allowed both conquistadors to argue that the rich city of Cuzco belonged to them. Factions loyal to both men nearly came to blows: Pizarro and Almagro met and decided that Almagro would lead an expedition to the south (into present-day Chile). It was hoped that he would find great wealth there and drop his claim to Peru. Inca Revolts Between 1535 and 1537 the Pizarro brothers had their hands full. Manco Inca, the puppet ruler, escaped and went into open rebellion, raising a massive army and laying siege to Cuzco. Francisco Pizarro was in the newly founded city of Lima most of the time, trying to send reinforcements to his brothers and fellow conquistadors in Cuzco and organizing shipments of wealth to Spain (he was always conscientious about setting aside the royal fifth, a 20% tax collected by the crown on all treasure collected). In Lima, Pizarro had to fend off a ferocious attack led by Inca General Quizo Yupanqui in August of 1536. The First Almagrist Civil War Cuzco, under siege by Manco Inca in early 1537, was rescued by the return of Diego de Almagro from Peru with what was left of his expedition. He lifted the siege and drove off Manco, only to take the city for himself, capturing Gonzalo and Hernando Pizarro in the process. In Chile, the Almagro expedition had found only harsh conditions and ferocious natives: he had come back to claim his share of Peru. Almagro had the support of many Spaniards, primarily those who had come to Peru too late to share in the spoils: they hoped that if the Pizarros were overthrown that Almagro would reward them with lands and gold. Gonzalo Pizarro escaped, and Hernando was released by Almagro as part of the peace negotiations. With his brothers behind him, Francisco decided to do away with his old partner once and for all. He sent Hernando into the highlands with an army of conquistadors, and they met Almagro and his supporters on April 26, 1538, at the Battle of Salinas. Hernando was victorious, while Diego de Almagro was captured, tried, and executed on July 8, 1538. Almagros execution was shocking to the Spaniards in Peru, as he had been raised to nobleman status by the king some years before. Death For the next three years, Francisco mainly remained in Lima, administrating his empire. Although Diego de Almagro had been defeated, there was still much resentment among late-coming conquistadors against the Pizarro brothers and the original conquistadors, who had left slim pickings after the fall of the Inca Empire. These men rallied around Diego de Almagro the younger, son of Diego de Almagro and a woman from Panama. On June 26, 1541, supporters of the younger Diego de Almagro, led by Juan de Herrada, entered Francisco Pizarros home in Lima and assassinated him and his half-brother Francisco Martà ­n de Alcntara. The old conquistador put up a good fight, taking down one of his attackers with him. With Pizarro dead, the Almagrists seized Lima and held it for almost a year before an alliance of Pizarrists (led by Gonzalo Pizarro) and royalists put it down. The Almagrists were defeated at the Battle of Chupas on September 16, 1542: Diego de Almagro the younger was captured and executed shortly after that. Legacy The cruelty and violence of the conquest of Peru is undeniable- it was essentially outright theft, mayhem, murder, and rape on a massive scale- but it is hard not to respect the sheer nerve of Francisco Pizarro. With only 160 men and a handful of horses, he brought down one of the largest civilizations in the world. His brazen capture of Atahualpa and decision to back the Cuzco faction in the simmering Inca civil war gave the Spaniards enough time to gain a foothold in Peru that they would never lose. By the time Manco Inca realized that the Spanish would not settle for anything less than the complete usurpation of his empire, it was too late. As far as the conquistadors go, Francisco Pizarro was not the worst of the lot (which isnt necessarily saying much). Other conquistadors, such as Pedro de Alvarado and his brother Gonzalo Pizarro, were much crueler in their dealings with the native population. Francisco could be cruel and violent, but in general, his acts of violence served some purpose, and he tended to think his actions through much more than others did. He realized that wantonly murdering the native population was not a sound plan in the long run, so he did not practice it. Francisco Pizarro married Inà ©s Huaylas Yupanqui, the daughter of the Inca emperor Huayna Capa, and she had two children: Francisca Pizarro Yupanqui (1534–1598) and Gonzalo Pizarro Yupanqui (1535–1546). Pizarro, like Hernn Cortà ©s in Mexico, is honored sort of halfheartedly in Peru. There is a statue of him in Lima and some streets and businesses are named after him, but most Peruvians are ambivalent about him at best. They all know who he was and what he did, but most present-day Peruvians do not find him much worthy of admiration. Sources Burkholder, Mark and Lyman L. Johnson. Colonial Latin America. Fourth Edition. New York: Oxford University Press, 2001.Hemming, John. The Conquest of the Inca. London: Pan Books, 2004 (original 1970).Herring, Hubert. A History of Latin America From the Beginnings to the Present. New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1962Patterson, Thomas C. The Inca Empire: The Formation and Disintegration of a Pre-Capitalist State. New York: Berg Publishers, 1991.Varon Gabai, Rafael. Francisco Pizarro and His Brothers: The Illusion of Power in Sixteenth-Century Peru. trans. Flores Espinosa, Javier. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1997.